The Global Market for Sustainable Chemicals 2025-2035

The Global Market for Sustainable Chemicals 2025-2035


The new era of chemicals represents a paradigm shift in the chemical industry, driven by the need for sustainability, technological advancements, and changing market demands. This transformation is characterized by a move away from fossil-based feedstocks towards renewable and circular resources, coupled with innovative production methods that minimize environmental impact.

Key aspects of this new era include:
 Sustainable Feedstocks: Utilization of biomass, CO2, and waste materials as raw materials for chemical production, reducing dependence on fossil resources.
 Green Chemistry: Application of principles that reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances in chemical processes.
 Circular Economy: Design of chemical products and processes for reuse, recycling, and upcycling, minimizing waste and maximizing resource efficiency.
 Electrification: Integration of renewable electricity in chemical processes, including electrocatalysis and electrochemical synthesis.
 Digitalization: Use of AI, machine learning, and advanced analytics to optimize processes and accelerate innovation.

Technology areas covered in this new era include:
 Biorefining: Converting biomass into a spectrum of valuable chemicals and materials.
 CO2 Utilization: Capturing and converting CO2 into chemicals, fuels, and materials.
 Advanced Catalysis: Developing highly selective and efficient catalysts for sustainable processes.
 Synthetic Biology: Engineering microorganisms to produce chemicals from renewable feedstocks.
 Flow Chemistry: Continuous manufacturing processes for improved efficiency and control.
 Additive Manufacturing: 3D printing of chemicals and materials for customized production.
 Advanced Materials: Developing sustainable, high-performance materials like bioplastics and advanced composites.
 Green Solvents: Creating bio-based and low-impact solvents to replace harmful traditional solvents.
 Process Intensification: Designing more compact, efficient, and integrated chemical processes.
 Waste Valorization: Converting waste streams into valuable chemicals and materials.
 Artificial Intelligence in Chemical Design: The use of AI and machine learning for molecular design, process optimization, and predictive modeling is becoming a significant market area in chemical innovation.
 Personalized Chemistry: This includes the development of customized chemicals and materials for personalized medicine, cosmetics, and other consumer products.
 Quantum Chemistry: Although still emerging, this field uses quantum mechanical principles to develop new materials and chemical processes, potentially revolutionizing various industries.

This new era of chemicals is not just about individual technologies but their integration into holistic, sustainable chemical value chains. It promises to deliver innovative solutions to global challenges while creating new economic opportunities and reducing the environmental footprint of the chemical industry. This report analyzes the sustainable chemicals market, offering insights into trends, technologies, and market opportunities from 2025 to 2035.

Report contents include:
 Market Drivers and Trends
 Sustainable Feedstocks and Green Chemistry
 Circular Economy in the Chemical Industry
 Emerging Technologies and Manufacturing Processes
 Electrification of chemical processes
 Digitalization and Industry 4.0 applications
 Advanced manufacturing technologies
 Biorefining and industrial biotechnology
 CO2 utilization technologies
 Advanced catalysts
 Synthetic biology and metabolic engineering
 Market Segments and Applications:
 Sustainable materials and polymers
 Green solvents and process chemicals
 Sustainable agriculture chemicals
 Renewable energy technologies
 Sustainable construction materials
 Green cosmetics and personal care products
 Sustainable packaging
 Eco-friendly paints and coatings
 Green electronics
 Sustainable textiles and fibers
 Alternative fuels and lubricants
 Pharmaceuticals and healthcare applications
 Water treatment and purification solutions
 Carbon capture and utilization products
 Industrial biotechnology products
 Advanced materials for 3D printing
 Regulatory Landscape and Policy Analysis
 Economic Aspects and Business Models
 Future Outlook and Emerging Trends
 Company Profiles and Competitive Landscape-profiles of over 1,000 key players in the sustainable chemicals market, analyzing their strategies, products, and market positions. Companies profiled include Aanika Biosciences, ACCUREC-Recycling GmbH, Aduro Clean Technologies, Aemetis, Agra Energy, Agilyx, Air Company, Aircela, Algenol, Allozymes, Alpha Biofuels, AM Green, Amyris, Andritz, APChemi, Apeiron Bioenergy, Aperam BioEnergia, Applied Research Associates (ARA), Aralez Bio, Arcadia eFuels, Ascend Elements, ASB Biodiesel, Atmonia, Avalon BioEnergy, Avantium, Avioxx, BANiQL, BASF, BBCA Biochemical & GALACTIC Lactic Acid, BBGI, BDI-BioEnergy International, BEE Biofuel, Benefuel, Bio2Oil, Bio-Oils, Biofibre GmbH, Bioform Technologies, Biofine Technology, Biofy, BiogasClean, BIOD Energy, Biojet, Biokemik, BIOLO, BioLogiQ, Inc., Biome Bioplastics, Biomass Resin Holdings Co., Ltd., Biomatter, BIO-FED, BIO-LUTIONS International AG, Bioplastech Ltd, BioSmart Nano, BIOTEC GmbH & Co. KG, Biovectra, Biovox GmbH, BlockTexx Pty Ltd., Bloom Biorenewables, Blue BioFuels, Blue Ocean Closures, BlueAlp Technology, Bluepha Beijing Lanjing Microbiology Technology Co., Ltd., BOBST, Borealis AG, Braskem, Braven Environmental, Brightmark Energy, Brightplus Oy, bse Methanol, BTG Bioliquids, Bucha Bio, Business Innovation Partners Co., Ltd., Buyo, Byogy Renewables, C1 Green Chemicals, Caphenia, Carbiolice, Carbios, Carbonade, CarbonBridge, Carbon Collect, Carbon Engineering, Carbon Infinity, Carbon Neutral Fuels, Carbon Recycling International, Carbon Sink, Carbyon, Cardia Bioplastics Ltd., CARAPAC Company, Cargill, Cascade Biocatalysts, Cass Materials Pty Ltd, Cassandra Oil, Casterra Ag, Celanese Corporation, Celtic Renewables, Cellugy, Cellutech AB (Stora Enso), Cereal Process Technologies (CPT), CERT Systems, CF Industries Holdings, Chemkey Advanced Materials Technology (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Chemol Company (Seydel), Chitose Bio Evolution, Circla Nordic, Cirba Solutions, CJ Biomaterials, Inc., CleanJoule, Climeworks, Coastgrass ApS, CNF Biofuel, Concord Blue Engineering, Constructive Bio, Cool Planet Energy Systems, Corumat, Inc., Corsair Group International, Coval Energy, Crimson Renewable Energy, Cruz Foam, Cryotech, CuanTec Ltd., Cyclic Materials, C-Zero, Daicel Polymer Ltd., Daio Paper Corporation, Danimer Scientific, D-CRBN, Debut Biotechnology, DIC Corporation, DIC Products, Inc., Diamond Green Diesel, Dimensional Energy, Dioxide Materials, Dioxycle, DKS Co. Ltd., Domsjö Fabriker, Dow, Inc., DuFor Resins B.V., DuPont, Earthodic Pty Ltd., EarthForm, EcoCeres, Eco Environmental, Eco Fuel Technology, Ecomann Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Ecoshell, Electro-Active Technologies, Eligo Bioscience, Enim, Enginzyme AB, Enzymit, Erebagen, EV Biotech, eversyn, Evolutor, FabricNano, FlexSea, Floreon, Gevo, Ginkgo Bioworks, Heraeus Remloy, HyProMag, Hyfé, Invizyne Technologies, JPM Silicon GmbH, LanzaTech, Librec AG, Lygos, MagREEsource, Mammoth Biosciences, MetaCycler BioInnovations, Mi Terro, NeoMetals, Noveon Magnetics, Novozymes A/S, NTx, Origin Materials, Phoenix Tailings, PlantSwitch, Posco, Pow.bio, Protein Evolution, REEtec, Rivalia Chemical, Samsara Eco, SiTration, Solugen, Sumitomo and Summit Nanotech, Synthego, Taiwan Bio-Manufacturing Corp. (TBMC), Teijin Limited, Twist Bioscience, Uluu, Van Heron Labs, Verde Bioresins, Versalis, Xampla and more....
 Market Forecasts and Data Analysis

This report is relevant for:
 Chemical industry executives and strategists
 Sustainability officers and environmental managers
 Investors and financial analysts
 R&D professionals
 Policy makers and regulatory bodies
 Environmental NGOs
 Academic researchers


1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1.1 The Need for a New Era in the Chemical Industry
1.2 Defining the New Era of Chemicals
1.3 Global Drivers and Trends
1.4 The Changing Landscape of the Chemical Industry
1.4.1 Historical Context: From Coal to Oil to Renewables
1.4.2 Current State of the Global Chemical Industry
1.4.3 Environmental Challenges and Regulatory Pressures
1.4.4 Shifting Consumer Demands and Market Dynamics
1.4.5 The Role of Digitalization and Industry 4.0
1.5 Emerging and Transforming Markets in the New Era of Chemicals
1.5.1 Sustainable Agriculture Chemicals
1.5.2 Green Cosmetics and Personal Care
1.5.3 Sustainable Packaging
1.5.4 Eco-friendly Paints and Coatings
1.5.5 Alternative Fuels and Lubricants
1.5.6 Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare
1.5.7 Water Treatment and Purification
1.5.8 Carbon Capture and Utilization Products
1.5.9 Advanced Materials for 3D Printing
1.5.10 Sustainable Mining and Metallurgy
2 FEEDSTOCKS
2.1 Sustainable Feedstocks: The Foundation of the New Era
2.2 Overview of Sustainable Feedstock Options
2.3 Biomass as a Chemical Feedstock
2.3.1 Types of Biomass and Their Chemical Compositions
2.3.2 Pretreatment and Conversion Technologies
2.3.3 Challenges in Scaling Up Biomass Utilization
2.4 CO2 as a Carbon Source
2.4.1 CO2 Capture Technologies
2.4.2 Chemical Conversion Pathways for CO2
2.4.3 Economic and Technical Barriers to CO2 Utilization
2.5 Waste Valorization
2.5.1 Municipal Solid Waste as a Feedstock
2.5.2 Industrial Waste Streams and By-products
2.5.3 Plastic Waste Recycling and Upcycling
2.6 Renewable (Green) Hydrogen
2.6.1 Electrolysis Technologies
2.6.2 Integration of Renewable Energy in Hydrogen Production
2.6.3 Hydrogen's Role in Chemical Synthesis
3 GREEN CHEMISTRY PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS
3.1 The 12 Principles of Green Chemistry
3.2 Atom Economy and Step Economy in Synthesis
3.3 Solvent Reduction and Green Solvents
3.3.1 Water as a Reaction Medium
3.3.2 Ionic Liquids and Deep Eutectic Solvents
3.3.3 Supercritical Fluids in Chemical Processes
3.4 Catalysis for Green Chemistry
3.4.1 Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering
3.4.2 Heterogeneous Catalysis Advancements
3.4.3 Photocatalysis and Electrocatalysis
3.5 Green Metrics and Life Cycle Assessment in Chemistry
4 CIRCULAR ECONOMY IN THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
4.1 Principles of Circular Economy
4.2 Design for Circularity in Chemical Products
4.3 Chemical Recycling Technologies
4.3.1 Applications
4.3.2 Pyrolysis
4.3.2.1 Non-catalytic
4.3.2.2 Catalytic
4.3.2.2.1 Polystyrene pyrolysis
4.3.2.2.2 Pyrolysis for production of bio fuel
4.3.2.2.3 Used tires pyrolysis
4.3.2.2.3.1 Conversion to biofuel
4.3.2.2.4 Co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic wastes
4.3.2.3 Companies and capacities
4.3.3 Gasification
4.3.3.1 Technology overview
4.3.3.1.1 Syngas conversion to methanol
4.3.3.1.2 Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation
4.3.3.1.3 Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion
4.3.3.2 Companies and capacities (current and planned)
4.3.4 Dissolution
4.3.4.1 Technology overview
4.3.4.2 Companies and capacities (current and planned)
4.3.5 Depolymerisation
4.3.5.1 Hydrolysis
4.3.5.1.1 Technology overview
4.3.5.2 Enzymolysis
4.3.5.2.1 Technology overview
4.3.5.3 Methanolysis
4.3.5.3.1 Technology overview
4.3.5.4 Glycolysis
4.3.5.4.1 Technology overview
4.3.5.5 Aminolysis
4.3.5.5.1 Technology overview
4.3.5.6 Companies and capacities (current and planned)
4.3.6 Other advanced chemical recycling technologies
4.3.6.1 Hydrothermal cracking
4.3.6.2 Pyrolysis with in-line reforming
4.3.6.3 Microwave-assisted pyrolysis
4.3.6.4 Plasma pyrolysis
4.3.6.5 Plasma gasification
4.3.6.6 Supercritical fluids
4.4 Upcycling of Chemical Waste
4.5 Circular Business Models in the Chemical Sector
4.6 Challenges and Opportunities in Implementing Circularity
4.7 Companies
5 ELECTRIFICATION OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES
5.1 The Role of Renewable Electricity in Chemical Production
5.2 Electrochemical Synthesis
5.2.1 Electroorganic Synthesis
5.2.2 Electrochemical CO2 Reduction
5.2.3 Electrochemical Nitrogen Fixation
5.3 Plasma Chemistry
5.4 Microwave-Assisted Chemistry
5.5 Integration of Power-to-X Technologies in Chemical Production
6 DIGITALIZATION AND INDUSTRY 4.0 IN CHEMISTRY
6.1 Big Data and Advanced Analytics in Chemical Research
6.2 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Applications
6.2.1 In Silico Design of Molecules and Materials
6.2.2 Process Optimization and Predictive Maintenance
6.2.3 Automated Synthesis and High-Throughput Experimentation
6.3 Digital Twins in Chemical Plant Operations
6.4 Blockchain for Supply Chain Transparency and Traceability
6.5 Cybersecurity Challenges in the Digitalized Chemical Industry
7 ADVANCED MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGIES
7.1 Continuous Flow Chemistry
7.1.1 Microreactors and Process Intensification
7.1.2 Advantages in Pharmaceuticals and Fine Chemicals
7.1.3 Challenges in Scale-up and Implementation
7.2 Modular and Distributed Manufacturing
7.3 3D Printing of Chemicals and Materials
7.3.1 Direct Ink Writing and Reactive Printing
7.3.2 Applications in Custom Synthesis and Formulation
7.4 Advanced Process Control and Real-time Monitoring
7.5 Flexible and Adaptable Production Systems
8 BIOREFINING AND INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
8.1 Biorefinery Concepts and Configurations
8.1.1 Biorefinery Classifications
8.1.2 Biorefinery Configurations
8.1.2.1 Lignocellulosic Biorefinery:
8.1.2.2 Whole-Crop Biorefinery
8.1.2.3 Green Biorefinery
8.1.2.4 Thermochemical Biorefinery
8.1.2.5 Marine Biorefinery
8.1.2.6 Integrated Forest Biorefinery
8.1.2.7 Integration and Process Intensification
8.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass Processing
8.3 Algal Biorefineries
8.4 Upstream Processing
8.4.1 Cell Culture
8.4.1.1 Overview
8.4.1.2 Types of Cell Culture Systems
8.4.1.3 Factors Affecting Cell Culture Performance
8.4.1.4 Advances in Cell Culture Technology
8.4.1.4.1 Single-use systems
8.4.1.4.2 Process analytical technology (PAT)
8.4.1.4.3 Cell line development
8.5 Fermentation
8.5.1 Overview
8.5.1.1 Types of Fermentation Processes
8.5.1.2 Factors Affecting Fermentation Performance
8.5.1.3 Advances in Fermentation Technology
8.5.1.3.1 High-cell-density fermentation
8.5.1.3.2 Continuous processing
8.5.1.3.3 Metabolic engineering
8.6 Downstream Processing
8.6.1 Purification
8.6.1.1 Overview
8.6.1.2 Types of Purification Methods
8.6.1.2.1 Factors Affecting Purification Performance
8.6.1.3 Advances in Purification Technology
8.6.1.3.1 Affinity chromatography
8.6.1.3.2 Membrane chromatography
8.6.1.3.3 Continuous chromatography
8.7 Formulation
8.7.1 Overview
8.7.1.1 Types of Formulation Methods
8.7.1.2 Factors Affecting Formulation Performance
8.7.1.3 Advances in Formulation Technology
8.7.1.3.1 Controlled release
8.7.1.3.2 Nanoparticle formulation
8.7.1.3.3 3D printing
8.8 Bioprocess Development
8.8.1 Scale-up
8.8.1.1 Overview
8.8.1.2 Factors Affecting Scale-up Performance
8.8.1.3 Scale-up Strategies
8.8.2 Optimization
8.8.2.1 Overview
8.8.2.2 Factors Affecting Optimization Performance
8.8.2.3 Optimization Strategies
8.9 Analytical Methods
8.9.1 Quality Control
8.9.1.1 Overview
8.9.1.2 Types of Quality Control Tests
8.9.1.3 Factors Affecting Quality Control Performance
8.9.2 Characterization
8.9.2.1 Overview
8.9.2.2 Types of Characterization Methods
8.9.2.3 Factors Affecting Characterization Performance
8.10 Scale of Production
8.10.1 Laboratory Scale
8.10.1.1 Overview
8.10.1.2 Scale and Equipment
8.10.1.3 Advantages
8.10.1.4 Disadvantages
8.10.2 Pilot Scale
8.10.2.1 Overview
8.10.2.2 Scale and Equipment
8.10.2.3 Advantages
8.10.2.4 Disadvantages
8.10.3 Commercial Scale
8.10.3.1 Overview
8.10.3.2 Scale and Equipment
8.10.3.3 Advantages
8.10.3.4 Disadvantages
8.11 Mode of Operation
8.11.1 Batch Production
8.11.1.1 Overview
8.11.1.2 Advantages
8.11.1.3 Disadvantages
8.11.1.4 Applications
8.11.2 Fed-batch Production
8.11.2.1 Overview
8.11.2.2 Advantages
8.11.2.3 Disadvantages
8.11.2.4 Applications
8.11.3 Continuous Production
8.11.3.1 Overview
8.11.3.2 Advantages
8.11.3.3 Disadvantages
8.11.3.4 Applications
8.11.4 Cell factories for biomanufacturing
8.11.5 Perfusion Culture
8.11.5.1 Overview
8.11.5.2 Advantages
8.11.5.3 Disadvantages
8.11.5.4 Applications
8.11.6 Other Modes of Operation
8.11.6.1 Immobilized Cell Culture
8.11.6.2 Two-Stage Production
8.11.6.3 Hybrid Systems
8.12 Host Organisms
9 CO2 UTILIZATION TECHNOLOGIES
9.1 Overview
9.2 CO2 non-conversion and conversion technology
9.3 Carbon utilization business models
9.3.1 Benefits of carbon utilization
9.3.2 Market challenges
9.4 Co2 utilization pathways
9.5 Conversion processes
9.5.1 Thermochemical
9.5.1.1 Process overview
9.5.1.2 Plasma-assisted CO2 conversion
9.5.2 Electrochemical conversion of CO2
9.5.2.1 Process overview
9.5.3 Photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic conversion of CO2
9.5.4 Catalytic conversion of CO2
9.5.5 Biological conversion of CO2
9.5.6 Copolymerization of CO2
9.5.7 Mineral carbonation
9.6 CO2-derived products
9.6.1 Fuels
9.6.1.1 Overview
9.6.1.2 Production routes
9.6.1.3 CO₂ -fuels in road vehicles
9.6.1.4 CO₂ -fuels in shipping
9.6.1.5 CO₂ -fuels in aviation
9.6.1.6 Power-to-methane
9.6.1.6.1 Biological fermentation
9.6.1.6.2 Costs
9.6.1.7 Algae based biofuels
9.6.1.8 CO₂-fuels from solar
9.6.1.9 Companies
9.6.1.10 Challenges
9.6.2 Chemicals and polymers
9.6.2.1 Polycarbonate from CO₂
9.6.2.2 Carbon nanostructures
9.6.2.3 Scalability
9.6.2.4 Applications
9.6.2.4.1 Urea production
9.6.2.4.2 CO₂-derived polymers
9.6.2.4.3 Inert gas in semiconductor manufacturing
9.6.2.4.4 Carbon nanotubes
9.6.2.5 Companies
9.6.3 Construction materials
9.6.3.1 Overview
9.6.3.2 CCUS technologies
9.6.3.3 Carbonated aggregates
9.6.3.4 Additives during mixing
9.6.3.5 Concrete curing
9.6.3.6 Costs
9.6.3.7 Market trends and business models
9.6.3.8 Companies
9.6.3.9 Challenges
9.6.4 CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting
9.6.4.1 Overview
9.6.4.2 Applications
9.6.4.2.1 Greenhouses
9.6.4.2.2 Algae cultivation
9.6.4.2.2.1 CO₂-enhanced algae cultivation: open systems
9.6.4.2.2.2 CO₂-enhanced algae cultivation: closed systems
9.6.4.2.3 Microbial conversion
9.6.4.2.4 Food and feed production
9.6.4.3 Companies
9.7 CO₂ Utilization in Enhanced Oil Recovery
9.7.1 Overview
9.7.1.1 Process
9.7.1.2 CO₂ sources
9.7.2 CO₂-EOR facilities and projects
9.7.3 Challenges
9.8 Enhanced mineralization
9.8.1 Advantages
9.8.2 In situ and ex-situ mineralization
9.8.3 Enhanced mineralization pathways
9.8.4 Challenges
10 ADVANCED CATALYSTS FOR SUSTAINABLE CHEMISTRY
10.1 Overview of biocatalyst technology
10.1.1 Biotransformations
10.1.2 Cascade biocatalysis
10.1.3 Co-factor recycling
10.1.4 Immobilization
10.2 Types of biocatalysts
10.2.1 Microorganisms
10.2.1.1 Bacteria
10.2.1.2 Fungi
10.2.1.3 Yeast
10.2.1.4 Archaea
10.2.1.5 Algae
10.2.1.6 Cyanobacteria
10.2.2 Engineered biocatalysts
10.2.2.1 Directed Evolution
10.2.2.2 Rational Design
10.2.2.3 Semi-Rational Design
10.2.2.4 Immobilization
10.2.2.5 Fusion Proteins
10.2.3 Enzymes
10.2.3.1 Detergent Enzymes
10.2.3.2 Food Processing Enzymes
10.2.3.3 Textile Processing Enzymes
10.2.3.4 Paper and Pulp Processing Enzymes
10.2.3.5 Leather Processing Enzymes
10.2.3.6 Biofuel Production Enzymes
10.2.3.7 Animal Feed Enzymes
10.2.3.8 Pharmaceutical and Diagnostic Enzymes
10.2.3.9 Waste Management and Bioremediation Enzymes
10.2.3.10 Agriculture and Crop Improvement Enzymes
10.2.4 Other types
10.2.4.1 Ribozymes
10.2.4.2 DNAzymes
10.2.4.3 Abzymes
10.2.4.4 Nanozymes
10.2.4.5 Organocatalysts
10.3 Production methods and processes
10.3.1 Fermentation
10.3.2 Recombinant DNA technology
10.3.3 ell-Free Protein Synthesis
10.3.4 Extraction from Natural Sources
10.3.5 Solid-State Fermentation
10.4 Emerging technologies and innovations in biocatalysis
10.4.1 Synthetic biology and metabolic engineering
10.4.1.1 Batch biomanufacturing
10.4.1.2 Continuous biomanufacturing
10.4.1.3 Fermentation Processes
10.4.1.4 Cell-free synthesis
10.4.2 Generative biology and Artificial Intelligence (AI)
10.4.2.1 Molecular Dynamics Simulations
10.4.2.2 Quantum Mechanical Calculations
10.4.2.3 Systems Biology Modeling
10.4.2.4 Metabolic Engineering Modeling
10.4.3 Genome engineering
10.4.4 Immobilization and encapsulation techniques
10.4.5 Biomimetics
10.4.6 Nanoparticle-based biocatalysts
10.4.7 Biocatalytic cascades and multi-enzyme systems
10.4.8 Microfluidics
10.5 Companies
11 SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY AND METABOLIC ENGINEERING
11.1 Metabolic engineering
11.2 Gene and DNA synthesis
11.3 Gene Synthesis and Assembly
11.4 Genome engineering
11.4.1 CRISPR
11.4.1.1 CRISPR/Cas9-modified biosynthetic pathways
11.4.1.2 TALENs
11.4.1.3 ZFNs
11.5 Protein/Enzyme Engineering
11.6 Synthetic genomics
11.6.1 Principles of Synthetic Genomics
11.6.2 Synthetic Chromosomes and Genomes
11.7 Strain construction and optimization
11.8 Smart bioprocessing
11.9 Chassis organisms
11.10 Biomimetics
11.11 Sustainable materials
11.12 Robotics and automation
11.12.1 Robotic cloud laboratories
11.12.2 Automating organism design
11.12.3 Artificial intelligence and machine learning
11.13 Bioinformatics and computational tools
11.13.1 Role of Bioinformatics in Synthetic Biology
11.13.2 Computational Tools for Design and Analysis
11.14 Xenobiology and expanded genetic alphabets
11.15 Biosensors and bioelectronics
11.16 Feedstocks
11.16.1 C1 feedstocks
11.16.1.1 Advantages
11.16.1.2 Pathways
11.16.1.3 Challenges
11.16.1.4 Non-methane C1 feedstocks
11.16.1.5 Gas fermentation
11.16.2 C2 feedstocks
11.16.3 Biological conversion of CO2
11.16.4 Food processing wastes
11.16.4.1 Syngas
11.16.4.2 Glycerol
11.16.4.3 Methane
11.16.4.4 Municipal solid wastes
11.16.4.5 Plastic wastes
11.16.4.6 Plant oils
11.16.4.7 Starch
11.16.4.8 Sugars
11.16.4.9 Used cooking oils
11.16.4.10 Green hydrogen production
11.16.4.11 Blue hydrogen production
11.16.5 Marine biotechnology
11.16.5.1 Cyanobacteria
11.16.5.2 Macroalgae
11.16.5.3 Companies
12 GREEN SOLVENTS AND ALTERNATIVE REACTION MEDIA
12.1 Bio-based Solvents
12.2 Switchable Solvents
12.3 Deep Eutectic Solvents (DES)
12.4 Supercritical Fluids in Industrial Applications
12.5 Solvent-free Reactions and Mechanochemistry
12.6 Solvent Selection Tools and Frameworks
12.7 Companies
13 WASTE VALORIZATION AND RESOURCE RECOVERY
13.1 Municipal Solid Waste to Chemicals
13.2 Agricultural and Food Waste Valorization
13.3 Critical Material Extraction Technology
13.3.1 Recovery of critical materials from secondary sources (e.g., end-of-life products, industrial waste) .. 373
13.3.2 Critical rare-earth element recovery from secondary sources
13.3.3 Li-ion battery technology metal recovery
13.3.4 Critical semiconductor materials recovery
13.3.5 Critical semiconductor materials recovery
13.3.6 Critical platinum group metal recovery
13.3.7 Critical platinum Group metal recovery
13.4 Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery
13.4.1 Bio-based Flocculants and Coagulants
13.4.2 Green Oxidants and Disinfectants
13.4.3 Sustainable Membrane Materials
13.4.3.1 Bio-based polymer membranes
13.4.3.2 Ceramic membranes from recycled materials
13.4.3.3 Self-healing membranes
13.4.4 Advanced Adsorbents for Contaminant Removal
13.4.4.1 Biochar
13.4.4.2 Activated carbon from waste biomass
13.4.4.3 Green zeolites and MOFs (Metal-Organic Frameworks)
13.4.5 Nutrient Recovery Technologies
13.4.6 Resource Recovery from Industrial Wastewater
13.4.7 Bioelectrochemical Systems
13.4.8 Green Solvents in Extraction Processes
13.4.9 Photocatalytic Materials
13.4.10 Biodegradable Chelating Agents
13.4.11 Biocatalysts for Wastewater Treatment
13.4.12 Advanced Adsorption Materials
13.4.13 Sustainable pH Adjustment Chemicals
13.5 Mining Waste Valorization
13.5.1 Bioleaching and Biooxidation
13.5.2 Green Lixiviants for Metal Extraction
13.5.3 Phytomining and Phytoremediation
13.5.4 Sustainable Flotation Chemicals
13.5.5 Electrochemical Recovery Methods
13.5.6 Geopolymers and Mine Tailings Utilization
13.5.7 CO2 Mineralization
13.5.8 Sustainable Remediation Technologies
13.5.9 Waste-to-Energy Technologies
13.5.10 Advanced Separation Techniques
13.6 Companies
14 ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND RENEWABLE ENERGY INTEGRATION
14.1 Energy Efficiency Measures in Chemical Plants
14.2 Heat Recovery and Pinch Analysis
14.3 Renewable Energy Sources in Chemical Production
14.4 Energy Storage Technologies for Process Industries
14.5 Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Systems
14.6 Industrial Symbiosis and Energy Integration
15 SAFETY AND SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT
15.1 Green Chemistry Metrics and Sustainability Indicators
15.2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in Chemical Processes
15.3 Safety by Design Principles
15.4 Risk Assessment and Management in New Chemical Technologies
15.5 Environmental Impact Assessment
15.6 Social and Ethical Considerations in the New Era of Chemicals
16 REGULATIONS AND POLICY
16.1 Global Chemical Regulations and Their Evolution
16.2 Environmental Policies Driving Sustainable Chemistry
16.3 Incentives and Support Mechanisms for Green Chemistry
16.4 Challenges in Regulating Emerging Technologies
16.5 International Cooperation and Harmonization Efforts
17 MARKETS AND PRODUCTS
17.1 Sustainable Materials and Polymers
17.1.1 Bioplastics and Biodegradable Polymers
17.1.1.1 Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA)
17.1.1.1.1 Overview
17.1.1.1.2 Properties
17.1.1.1.3 Applications
17.1.1.1.4 Advantages
17.1.1.1.5 Commercial examples
17.1.1.2 Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET)
17.1.1.2.1 Overview
17.1.1.2.2 Properties
17.1.1.2.3 Applications
17.1.1.2.4 Commercial examples
17.1.1.3 Polytrimethylene terephthalate (Bio-PTT)
17.1.1.3.1 Overview
17.1.1.3.2 Production Process
17.1.1.3.3 Properties
17.1.1.3.4 Applications
17.1.1.3.5 Commercial examples
17.1.1.4 Polyethylene furanoate (Bio-PEF)
17.1.1.4.1 Overview
17.1.1.4.2 Properties
17.1.1.4.3 Applications
17.1.1.4.4 Commercial examples
17.1.1.5 Bio-PA
17.1.1.5.1 Overview
17.1.1.5.2 Properties
17.1.1.5.3 Commercial examples
17.1.1.6 Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (Bio-PBAT)- Aliphatic aromatic copolyesters
17.1.1.6.1 Overview
17.1.1.6.2 Properties
17.1.1.6.3 Applications
17.1.1.6.4 Commercial examples
17.1.1.7 Polybutylene succinate (PBS) and copolymers
17.1.1.7.1 Overview
17.1.1.7.2 Properties
17.1.1.7.3 Applications
17.1.1.7.4 Commercial examples
17.1.1.8 Polypropylene (Bio-PP)
17.1.1.8.1 Overview
17.1.1.8.2 Properties
17.1.1.8.3 Applications
17.1.1.8.4 Commercial examples
17.1.1.9 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
17.1.1.9.1 Properties
17.1.1.9.2 Applications
17.1.1.9.3 Commercial examples
17.1.1.10 Starch-based blends
17.1.1.10.1 Overview
17.1.1.10.2 Properties
17.1.1.10.3 Applications
17.1.1.10.4 Commercial examples
17.1.1.11 Cellulose
17.1.1.11.1 Feedstocks
17.1.1.12 Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC)
17.1.1.12.1 Properties
17.1.1.13 Nanocellulose
17.1.1.13.1 Cellulose nanocrystals
17.1.1.13.1.1 Applications
17.1.1.13.2 Cellulose nanofibers
17.1.1.13.2.1 Applications
17.1.1.13.2.1.1 Reinforcement and barrier
17.1.1.13.2.1.2 Biodegradable food packaging foil and films
17.1.1.13.2.1.3 Paperboard coatings
17.1.1.13.3 Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC)
17.1.1.13.3.1 Applications in packaging
17.1.1.13.3.2 Commercial examples
17.1.1.14 Protein-based bioplastics in packaging
17.1.1.14.1 Feedstocks
17.1.1.14.2 Commercial examples
17.1.1.15 Alginate
17.1.1.15.1 Overview
17.1.1.15.2 Production
17.1.1.15.3 Applications
17.1.1.15.4 Producers
17.1.1.16 Mycelium
17.1.1.16.1 Overview
17.1.1.16.2 Applications
17.1.1.16.3 Commercial examples
17.1.1.17 Chitosan
17.1.1.17.1 Overview
17.1.1.17.2 Applications
17.1.1.17.3 Commercial examples
17.1.1.18 Bio-naphtha
17.1.1.18.1 Overview
17.1.1.18.2 Markets and applications
17.1.1.18.3 Commercial examples
17.1.2 Recycled and Upcycled Plastics
17.1.3 High-Performance Bio-based Materials
17.1.4 Companies
17.2 Sustainable Agriculture Chemicals
17.2.1 Overview
17.2.2 Biopesticides and Biocontrol Agents
17.2.3 Precision Agriculture Chemicals
17.2.4 Controlled-Release Fertilizers
17.2.5 Biostimulants
17.2.6 Microbials
17.2.6.1 Overview
17.2.6.2 Microbial biostimulants and biofertilizers
17.2.6.3 Microbiome manipulation
17.2.6.4 Prebiotics
17.2.7 Biochemicals
17.2.8 Semiochemicals
17.2.9 Macrobials
17.2.10 Biopesticides
17.2.10.1 Natural herbicides and insecticides
17.2.11 Companies
17.3 Sustainable Construction Materials
17.3.1 Established bio-based construction materials
17.3.2 Hemp-based Materials
17.3.2.1 Hemp Concrete (Hempcrete)
17.3.2.2 Hemp Fiberboard
17.3.2.3 Hemp Insulation
17.3.3 Mycelium-based Materials
17.3.3.1 Insulation
17.3.3.2 Structural Elements
17.3.3.3 Acoustic Panels
17.3.3.4 Decorative Elements
17.3.4 Sustainable Concrete and Cement Alternatives
17.3.4.1 Geopolymer Concrete
17.3.4.2 Recycled Aggregate Concrete
17.3.4.3 Lime-Based Materials
17.3.4.4 Self-healing concrete
17.3.4.4.1 Bioconcrete
17.3.4.4.2 Fiber concrete
17.3.4.5 Microalgae biocement
17.3.4.6 Carbon-negative concrete
17.3.4.7 Biomineral binders
17.3.5 Natural Fiber Composites
17.3.5.1 Types of Natural Fibers
17.3.5.2 Properties
17.3.5.3 Applications in Construction
17.3.6 Cellulose nanofibers
17.3.6.1 Sandwich composites
17.3.6.2 Cement additives
17.3.6.3 Pump primers
17.3.6.4 Insulation materials
17.3.7 Sustainable Insulation Materials
17.3.7.1 Types of sustainable insulation materials
17.3.7.2 Biobased and sustainable aerogels (bio-aerogels)
17.3.8 Companies
17.4 Sustainable Packaging
17.4.1 Paper and board packaging
17.4.2 Food packaging
17.4.2.1 Bio-Based films and trays
17.4.2.2 Bio-Based pouches and bags
17.4.2.3 Bio-Based textiles and nets
17.4.2.4 Bioadhesives
17.4.2.4.1 Starch
17.4.2.4.2 Cellulose
17.4.2.4.3 Protein-Based
17.4.2.5 Barrier coatings and films
17.4.2.5.1 Polysaccharides
17.4.2.5.1.1 Chitin
17.4.2.5.1.2 Chitosan
17.4.2.5.1.3 Starch
17.4.2.5.2 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA)
17.4.2.5.3 Poly(butylene Succinate)
17.4.2.5.4 Functional Lipid and Proteins Based Coatings
17.4.2.6 Active and Smart Food Packaging
17.4.2.6.1 Active Materials and Packaging Systems
17.4.2.6.2 Intelligent and Smart Food Packaging
17.4.2.7 Antimicrobial films and agents
17.4.2.7.1 Natural
17.4.2.7.2 Inorganic nanoparticles
17.4.2.7.3 Biopolymers
17.4.2.8 Bio-based Inks and Dyes
17.4.2.9 Edible films and coatings
17.4.2.9.1 Overview
17.4.2.9.2 Commercial examples
17.4.2.10 Types of bio-based coatings and films in packaging
17.4.2.10.1 Polyurethane coatings
17.4.2.10.1.1 Properties
17.4.2.10.1.2 Bio-based polyurethane coatings
17.4.2.10.1.3 Products
17.4.2.10.2 Acrylate resins
17.4.2.10.2.1 Properties
17.4.2.10.2.2 Bio-based acrylates
17.4.2.10.2.3 Products
17.4.2.10.3 Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA)
17.4.2.10.3.1 Properties
17.4.2.10.3.2 Bio-PLA coatings and films
17.4.2.10.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) coatings
17.4.2.10.5 Cellulose coatings and films
17.4.2.10.5.1 Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC)
17.4.2.10.5.2 Cellulose nanofibers
17.4.2.10.5.2.1 Properties
17.4.2.10.5.2.2 Product developers
17.4.2.10.6 Lignin coatings
17.4.2.10.7 Protein-based biomaterials for coatings
17.4.2.10.7.1 Plant derived proteins
17.4.2.10.7.2 Animal origin proteins
17.4.3 Carbon capture derived materials for packaging
17.4.3.1 Benefits of carbon utilization for plastics feedstocks
17.4.3.2 CO₂-derived polymers and plastics
17.4.3.3 CO2 utilization products
17.4.4 Companies
17.5 Green Cosmetics and Personal Care
17.5.1 Natural and Bio-based Ingredients
17.5.2 Microplastic Alternatives
17.5.2.1 Natural hard materials
17.5.2.2 Polysaccharides
17.5.2.2.1 Starch
17.5.2.2.2 Cellulose
17.5.2.2.2.1 Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC)
17.5.2.2.2.2 Regenerated cellulose microspheres
17.5.2.2.2.3 Cellulose nanocrystals
17.5.2.2.2.4 Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC)
17.5.2.2.3 Chitin
17.5.2.3 Proteins
17.5.2.3.1 Collagen/Gelatin
17.5.2.3.2 Casein
17.5.2.4 Polyesters
17.5.2.4.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
17.5.2.4.2 Polylactic acid
17.5.2.5 Other natural polymers
17.5.2.5.1 Lignin
17.5.2.5.1.1 Description
17.5.2.5.1.2 Applications and commercial status
17.5.2.5.2 Alginate
17.5.2.5.2.1 Applications and commercial status
17.5.3 Waterless Formulations
17.5.4 Companies
17.6 Bio-based and Eco-Friendly Paints and Coatings
17.6.1 UV-cure
17.6.2 Waterborne coatings
17.6.3 Treatments with less or no solvents
17.6.4 Hyperbranched polymers for coatings
17.6.5 Powder coatings
17.6.6 High solid (HS) coatings
17.6.7 Use of bio-based materials in coatings
17.6.7.1 Biopolymers
17.6.7.2 Coatings based on agricultural waste
17.6.7.3 Vegetable oils and fatty acids
17.6.7.4 Proteins
17.6.7.5 Cellulose
17.6.7.6 Plant-Based wax coatings
17.6.8 Barrier coatings
17.6.8.1 Polysaccharides
17.6.8.1.1 Chitin
17.6.8.1.2 Chitosan
17.6.8.1.3 Starch
17.6.8.2 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA)
17.6.8.3 Poly(butylene Succinate
17.6.8.4 Functional Lipid and Proteins Based Coatings
17.6.9 Alkyd coatings
17.6.9.1 Alkyd resin properties
17.6.9.2 Bio-based alkyd coatings
17.6.9.3 Products
17.6.10 Polyurethane coatings
17.6.10.1 Properties
17.6.10.2 Bio-based polyurethane coatings
17.6.10.2.1 Bio-based polyols
17.6.10.2.2 Non-isocyanate polyurethane (NIPU)
17.6.10.3 Products
17.6.11 Epoxy coatings
17.6.11.1 Properties
17.6.11.2 Bio-based epoxy coatings
17.6.11.3 Products
17.6.12 Acrylate resins
17.6.12.1 Properties
17.6.12.2 Bio-based acrylates
17.6.12.3 Products
17.6.13 Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA)
17.6.13.1 Bio-PLA coatings and films
17.6.14 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
17.6.15 Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC)
17.6.16 Cellulose nanofibers
17.6.17 Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC)
17.6.18 Rosins
17.6.19 Bio-based carbon black
17.6.19.1 Lignin-based
17.6.19.2 Algae-based
17.6.20 Lignin
17.6.21 Antimicrobial films and agents
17.6.21.1 Natural
17.6.21.2 Inorganic nanoparticles
17.6.21.3 Biopolymers
17.6.22 Nanocoatings
17.6.23 Protein-based biomaterials for coatings
17.6.23.1 Plant derived proteins
17.6.23.2 Animal origin proteins
17.6.24 Algal coatings
17.6.25 Polypeptides
17.6.26 Companies
17.7 Green Electronics
17.7.1 Biodegradable Electronics
17.7.2 Recycled and Recoverable Electronic Materials
17.7.3 Conventional electronics manufacturing
17.7.4 Benefits of Green Electronics manufacturing
17.7.5 Challenges in adopting Green Electronics manufacturing
17.7.6 Green Electronics Manufacturing
17.7.7 Sustainability in PCB manufacturing
17.7.7.1 Sustainable cleaning of PCBs
17.7.8 Design of PCBs for sustainability
17.7.8.1 Rigid
17.7.8.2 Flexible
17.7.8.3 Additive manufacturing
17.7.8.4 In-mold elctronics (IME)
17.7.9 Materials
17.7.9.1 Metal cores
17.7.9.2 Recycled laminates
17.7.9.3 Conductive inks
17.7.9.4 Green and lead-free solder
17.7.9.5 Biodegradable substrates
17.7.9.5.1 Bacterial Cellulose
17.7.9.5.2 Mycelium
17.7.9.5.3 Lignin
17.7.9.5.4 Cellulose Nanofibers
17.7.9.5.5 Soy Protein
17.7.9.5.6 Algae
17.7.9.5.7 PHAs
17.7.9.6 Biobased inks
17.7.10 Substrates
17.7.10.1 Halogen-free FR4
17.7.10.1.1 FR4 limitations
17.7.10.1.2 FR4 alternatives
17.7.10.1.3 Bio-Polyimide
17.7.10.2 Metal-core PCBs
17.7.10.3 Biobased PCBs
17.7.10.3.1 Flexible (bio) polyimide PCBs
17.7.10.3.2 Recent commercial activity
17.7.10.4 Paper-based PCBs
17.7.10.5 PCBs without solder mask
17.7.10.6 Thinner dielectrics
17.7.10.7 Recycled plastic substrates
17.7.10.8 Flexible substrates
17.7.11 Sustainable patterning and metallization in electronics manufacturing
17.7.11.1 Introduction
17.7.11.2 Issues with sustainability
17.7.11.3 Regeneration and reuse of etching chemicals
17.7.11.4 Transition from Wet to Dry phase patterning
17.7.11.5 Print-and-plate
17.7.11.6 Approaches
17.7.11.6.1 Direct Printed Electronics
17.7.11.6.2 Photonic Sintering
17.7.11.6.3 Biometallization
17.7.11.6.4 Plating Resist Alternatives
17.7.11.6.5 Laser-Induced Forward Transfer
17.7.11.6.6 Electrohydrodynamic Printing
17.7.11.6.7 Electrically conductive adhesives (ECAs
17.7.11.6.8 Green electroless plating
17.7.11.6.9 Smart Masking
17.7.11.6.10 Component Integration
17.7.11.6.11 Bio-inspired material deposition
17.7.11.6.12 Multi-material jetting
17.7.11.6.13 Vacuumless deposition
17.7.11.6.14 Upcycling waste streams
17.7.12 Sustainable attachment and integration of components
17.7.12.1 Conventional component attachment materials
17.7.12.2 Materials
17.7.12.2.1 Conductive adhesives
17.7.12.2.2 Biodegradable adhesives
17.7.12.2.3 Magnets
17.7.12.2.4 Bio-based solders
17.7.12.2.5 Bio-derived solders
17.7.12.2.6 Recycled plastics
17.7.12.2.7 Nano adhesives
17.7.12.2.8 Shape memory polymers
17.7.12.2.9 Photo-reversible polymers
17.7.12.2.10 Conductive biopolymers
17.7.12.3 Processes
17.7.12.3.1 Traditional thermal processing methods
17.7.12.3.2 Low temperature solder
17.7.12.3.3 Reflow soldering
17.7.12.3.4 Induction soldering
17.7.12.3.5 UV curing
17.7.12.3.6 Near-infrared (NIR) radiation curing
17.7.12.3.7 Photonic sintering/curing
17.7.12.3.8 Hybrid integration
17.7.13 Sustainable integrated circuits
17.7.13.1 IC manufacturing
17.7.13.2 Sustainable IC manufacturing
17.7.13.3 Wafer production
17.7.13.3.1 Silicon
17.7.13.3.2 Gallium nitride ICs
17.7.13.3.3 Flexible ICs
17.7.13.3.4 Fully printed organic ICs
17.7.13.4 Oxidation methods
17.7.13.4.1 Sustainable oxidation
17.7.13.4.2 Metal oxides
17.7.13.4.3 Recycling
17.7.13.4.4 Thin gate oxide layers
17.7.13.5 Patterning and doping
17.7.13.5.1 Processes
17.7.13.5.1.1 Wet etching
17.7.13.5.1.2 Dry plasma etching
17.7.13.5.1.3 Lift-off patterning
17.7.13.5.1.4 Surface doping
17.7.13.6 Metallization
17.7.13.6.1 Evaporation
17.7.13.6.2 Plating
17.7.13.6.3 Printing
17.7.13.6.3.1 Printed metal gates for organic thin film transistors
17.7.13.6.4 Physical vapour deposition (PVD)
17.7.14 End of life
17.7.14.1 Hazardous waste
17.7.14.2 Emissions
17.7.14.3 Water Usage
17.7.14.4 Recycling
17.7.14.4.1 Mechanical recycling
17.7.14.4.2 Electro-Mechanical Separation
17.7.14.4.3 Chemical Recycling
17.7.14.4.4 Electrochemical Processes
17.7.14.4.5 Thermal Recycling
17.7.15 Green Certification
17.7.16 Companies
17.8 Sustainable Textiles and Fibers
17.8.1 Types of bio-based fibres
17.8.1.1 Natural fibres
17.8.1.2 Main-made bio-based fibres
17.8.2 Bio-based synthetics
17.8.3 Recyclability of bio-based fibres
17.8.4 Lyocell
17.8.5 Bacterial cellulose
17.8.6 Algae textiles
17.8.7 Bio-based leather
17.8.7.1 Properties of bio-based leathers
17.8.7.1.1 Tear strength.
17.8.7.1.2 Tensile strength
17.8.7.1.3 Bally flexing
17.8.7.2 Comparison with conventional leathers
17.8.7.3 Comparative analysis of bio-based leathers
17.8.7.4 Plant-based leather
17.8.7.4.1 Overview
17.8.7.4.2 Production processes
17.8.7.4.2.1 Feedstocks
17.8.7.4.2.1 Agriculture Residues
17.8.7.4.2.2 Food Processing Waste
17.8.7.4.2.3 Invasive Plants
17.8.7.4.2.4 Culture-Grown Inputs
17.8.7.4.2.5 Textile-Based
17.8.7.4.2.6 Bio-Composite
17.8.7.4.3 Products
17.8.7.4.4 Market players
17.8.7.5 Mycelium leather
17.8.7.5.1 Overview
17.8.7.5.2 Production process
17.8.7.5.2.1 Growth conditions
17.8.7.5.2.2 Tanning Mycelium Leather
17.8.7.5.2.3 Dyeing Mycelium Leather
17.8.7.5.3 Products
17.8.7.5.4 Market players
17.8.7.6 Microbial leather
17.8.7.6.1 Overview
17.8.7.6.2 Production process
17.8.7.6.3 Fermentation conditions
17.8.7.6.4 Harvesting
17.8.7.6.5 Products
17.8.7.6.6 Market players
17.8.7.7 Lab grown leather
17.8.7.7.1 Overview
17.8.7.7.2 Production process
17.8.7.7.3 Products
17.8.7.7.4 Market players
17.8.7.8 Protein-based leather
17.8.7.8.1 Overview
17.8.7.8.2 Production process
17.8.7.8.3 Commercial activity
17.8.7.9 Sustainable textiles coatings and dyes
17.8.7.9.1 Overview
17.8.7.9.1.1 Coatings
17.8.7.9.1.2 Dyes
17.8.7.9.2 Commercial activity
17.8.8 Companies
17.9 Alternative Fuels and Lubricants
17.9.1 Biofuels and Synthetic Fuels
17.9.2 Biodiesel
17.9.2.1 Biodiesel by generation
17.9.2.2 Production of biodiesel and other biofuels
17.9.2.2.1 Pyrolysis of biomass
17.9.2.2.2 Vegetable oil transesterification
17.9.2.2.3 Vegetable oil hydrogenation (HVO)
17.9.2.2.3.1 Production process
17.9.2.2.4 Biodiesel from tall oil
17.9.2.2.5 Fischer-Tropsch BioDiesel
17.9.2.2.6 Hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass
17.9.2.2.7 CO2 capture and Fischer-Tropsch (FT)
17.9.2.2.8 Dymethyl ether (DME)
17.9.2.3 Prices
17.9.2.4 Global production and consumption
17.9.3 Renewable diesel
17.9.3.1 Production
17.9.3.2 SWOT analysis
17.9.3.3 Global consumption
17.9.3.4 Prices
17.9.4 Bio-aviation fuel (bio-jet fuel, sustainable aviation fuel, renewable jet fuel or aviation biofuel)
17.9.4.1 Description
17.9.4.2 SWOT analysis
17.9.4.3 Global production and consumption
17.9.4.4 Production pathways
17.9.4.5 Prices
17.9.4.6 Bio-aviation fuel production capacities
17.9.4.7 Market challenges
17.9.4.8 Global consumption
17.9.5 Bio-naphtha
17.9.5.1 Overview
17.9.5.2 SWOT analysis
17.9.5.3 Markets and applications
17.9.5.4 Prices
17.9.5.5 Production capacities, by producer, current and planned
17.9.5.6 Production capacities, total (tonnes), historical, current and planned
17.9.6 Biomethanol
17.9.6.1 SWOT analysis
17.9.6.2 Methanol-to gasoline technology
17.9.6.2.1 Production processes
17.9.6.2.1.1 Anaerobic digestion
17.9.6.2.1.2 Biomass gasification
17.9.6.2.1.3 Power to Methane
17.9.7 Ethanol
17.9.7.1 Technology description
17.9.7.2 1G Bio-Ethanol
17.9.7.3 SWOT analysis
17.9.7.4 Ethanol to jet fuel technology
17.9.7.5 Methanol from pulp & paper production
17.9.7.6 Sulfite spent liquor fermentation
17.9.7.7 Gasification
17.9.7.7.1 Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation
17.9.7.7.2 Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion
17.9.7.8 CO2 capture and alcohol synthesis
17.9.7.9 Biomass hydrolysis and fermentation
17.9.7.9.1 Separate hydrolysis and fermentation
17.9.7.9.2 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF)
17.9.7.9.3 Pre-hydrolysis and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (PSSF)
17.9.7.9.4 Simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF)
17.9.7.9.5 Direct conversion (consolidated bioprocessing) (CBP)
17.9.7.10 Global ethanol consumption
17.9.8 Biobutanol
17.9.8.1 Production
17.9.8.2 Prices
17.9.9 Biomass-based Gas
17.9.9.1 Biomethane
17.9.9.2 Production pathways
17.9.9.2.1 Landfill gas recovery
17.9.9.2.2 Anaerobic digestion
17.9.9.2.3 Thermal gasification
17.9.9.3 SWOT analysis
17.9.9.4 Global production
17.9.9.5 Prices
17.9.9.5.1 Raw Biogas
17.9.9.5.2 Upgraded Biomethane
17.9.9.6 Bio-LNG
17.9.9.6.1 Markets
17.9.9.6.1.1 Trucks
17.9.9.6.1.2 Marine
17.9.9.6.2 Production
17.9.9.6.3 Plants
17.9.9.7 bio-CNG (compressed natural gas derived from biogas)
17.9.9.8 Carbon capture from biogas
17.9.10 Biosyngas
17.9.10.1 Production
17.9.10.2 Prices
17.9.11 Biohydrogen
17.9.11.1 Description
17.9.11.2 SWOT analysis
17.9.11.3 Production of biohydrogen from biomass
17.9.11.3.1 Biological Conversion Routes
17.9.11.3.1.1 Bio-photochemical Reaction
17.9.11.3.1.2 Fermentation and Anaerobic Digestion
17.9.11.3.2 Thermochemical conversion routes
17.9.11.3.2.1 Biomass Gasification
17.9.11.3.2.2 Biomass Pyrolysis
17.9.11.3.2.3 Biomethane Reforming
17.9.11.4 Applications
17.9.11.5 Prices
17.9.12 Biochar in biogas production
17.9.13 Bio-DME
17.9.14 Chemical recycling for biofuels
17.9.14.1 Plastic pyrolysis
17.9.14.2 Used tires pyrolysis
17.9.14.2.1 Conversion to biofuel
17.9.14.3 Co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic wastes
17.9.14.4 Gasification
17.9.14.4.1 Syngas conversion to methanol
17.9.14.4.2 Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation
17.9.14.4.3 Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion
17.9.14.5 Hydrothermal cracking
17.9.15 Electrofuels (E-fuels, power-to-gas/liquids/fuels)
17.9.15.1 Introduction
17.9.15.2 Benefits of e-fuels
17.9.15.3 Feedstocks
17.9.15.3.1 Hydrogen electrolysis
17.9.15.4 CO2 capture
17.9.15.5 Production
17.9.15.5.1 eFuel production facilities, current and planned
17.9.15.6 Companies
17.9.16 Algae-derived biofuels
17.9.16.1 Technology description
17.9.16.1.1 Conversion pathways
17.9.16.2 Production
17.9.16.3 Market challenges
17.9.16.4 Prices
17.9.16.5 Producers
17.9.17 Green Ammonia
17.9.17.1 Production
17.9.17.1.1 Decarbonisation of ammonia production
17.9.17.1.2 Green ammonia projects
17.9.17.2 Green ammonia synthesis methods
17.9.17.2.1 Haber-Bosch process
17.9.17.2.2 Biological nitrogen fixation
17.9.17.2.3 Electrochemical production
17.9.17.2.4 Chemical looping processes
17.9.17.3 Blue ammonia
17.9.17.3.1 Blue ammonia projects
17.9.17.3.2 Markets and applications
17.9.17.3.3 Chemical energy storage
17.9.17.3.4 Ammonia fuel cells
17.9.17.3.5 Marine fuel
17.9.17.3.6 Prices
17.9.17.4 Companies and projects
17.9.18 Bio-oils (pyrolysis oils)
17.9.18.1 Description
17.9.18.1.1 Advantages of bio-oils
17.9.18.2 Production
17.9.18.2.1 Fast Pyrolysis
17.9.18.2.2 Costs of production
17.9.18.2.3 Upgrading
17.9.18.3 Applications
17.9.18.4 Bio-oil producers
17.9.18.5 Prices
17.9.19 Refuse Derived Fuels (RDF)
17.9.19.1 Overview
17.9.19.2 Production
17.9.19.2.1 Production process
17.9.19.2.2 Mechanical biological treatment
17.9.19.3 Markets
17.9.20 Bio-based Lubricants
17.9.21 Companies
17.10 Green Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare
17.10.1 Green Pharmaceutical Synthesis
17.10.1.1 Green Solvents
17.10.1.1.1 Supercritical CO2 (scCO2)
17.10.1.1.2 Ionic Liquids
17.10.1.1.3 Bio-based Solvents
17.10.1.1.4 Water-based Reactions
17.10.1.2 Catalysis
17.10.1.2.1 Biocatalysis (Enzymes and Whole-cell Catalysts)
17.10.1.2.2 Heterogeneous Catalysts
17.10.1.2.3 Organocatalysts
17.10.1.2.4 Photocatalysis
17.10.1.3 Continuous Flow Chemistry
17.10.1.3.1 Microreactors
17.10.1.3.2 Flow Photochemistry
17.10.1.3.3 Electrochemical Flow Cells
17.10.1.4 Alternative Energy Sources
17.10.1.4.1 Microwave-assisted Synthesis
17.10.1.4.2 Ultrasound-assisted Reactions
17.10.1.4.3 Mechanochemistry (Ball Milling)
17.10.1.5 Green Oxidation and Reduction Methods
17.10.1.5.1 Electrochemical oxidation/reduction
17.10.1.5.2 Photochemical reactions
17.10.1.5.3 Hydrogen peroxide as green oxidant
17.10.1.6 Atom-Economical Reactions
17.10.1.7 Bio-based Starting Materials
17.10.1.8 Process Intensification
17.10.1.9 Green Analytical Techniques
17.10.1.10 Sustainable Purification Methods
17.10.2 Bio-based Drug Delivery Systems
17.10.2.1 Natural polymers
17.10.2.1.1 Chitosan and its derivatives
17.10.2.1.2 Alginate
17.10.2.1.3 Hyaluronic acid
17.10.2.1.4 Cellulose and its derivatives
17.10.2.2 Protein-based Materials
17.10.2.2.1 Albumin nanoparticles
17.10.2.2.2 Collagen matrices
17.10.2.2.3 Silk fibroin scaffolds
17.10.2.2.4 Gelatin hydrogels
17.10.2.3 Polysaccharide-based Systems
17.10.2.3.1 Cyclodextrins
17.10.2.3.2 Pectin
17.10.2.3.3 Dextran
17.10.2.3.4 Pullulan
17.10.2.4 Lipid-based Carriers
17.10.2.4.1 Liposomes from natural phospholipids
17.10.2.4.2 Solid lipid nanoparticles
17.10.2.4.3 Nanostructured lipid carriers
17.10.2.5 Plant-derived Materials
17.10.2.5.1 Guar gum
17.10.2.5.2 Carrageenan
17.10.2.5.3 Zein (corn protein)
17.10.2.5.4 Starch-based materials
17.10.2.6 Microbial-derived Polymers
17.10.2.6.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)
17.10.2.6.2 Bacterial cellulose
17.10.2.6.3 Xanthan gum
17.10.2.7 Stimuli-responsive Biopolymers
17.10.2.7.1 pH-sensitive alginate derivatives
17.10.2.7.2 Thermoresponsive chitosan systems
17.10.2.7.3 Enzyme-responsive materials
17.10.2.8 Bioconjugation Techniques
17.10.2.8.1 Click chemistry for polymer modification
17.10.2.8.2 Enzyme-catalyzed conjugation
17.10.2.8.3 Photo-initiated crosslinking
17.10.2.9 Sustainable Particle Formation
17.10.2.9.1 Spray-drying with green solvents
17.10.2.9.2 Electrospinning of biopolymers
17.10.2.9.3 Supercritical fluid-assisted particle formation
17.10.3 Sustainable Medical Devices
17.10.4 Personalized Chemistry in Medicine
17.10.4.1 Tailored Drug Delivery Systems
17.10.4.2 Personalized Diagnostic Materials
17.10.4.3 Custom-synthesized Therapeutics
17.10.4.4 Biocompatible Materials for Implants
17.10.4.5 3D-printed Pharmaceuticals
17.10.4.6 Personalized Nutrient Formulations
17.10.5 Companies
17.11 Advanced Materials for 3D Printing
17.11.1 Bio-based 3D Printing Resins
17.11.2 Recyclable and Reusable 3D Printing Materials
17.11.3 Functional and Smart 3D Printing Materials
17.11.4 Companies
17.12 Artificial Intelligence in Chemical Design
17.12.1 Machine Learning for Molecular Design
17.12.2 AI-driven Retrosynthesis Planning
17.12.3 Predictive Modelling of Chemical Properties
17.12.4 AI in Process Optimization
17.12.5 Automated Lab Systems and Robotics
17.12.6 AI for Materials Discovery and Development
17.13 Quantum Chemistry Applications
17.13.1 Quantum Computing for Molecular Simulations
17.13.2 Quantum Sensors in Chemical Analysis
17.13.3 Quantum-inspired Algorithms for Property Prediction
17.13.4 Quantum Approaches to Catalyst Design
17.13.5 Quantum Chemistry in Drug Discovery
17.13.6 Quantum Effects in Nanomaterials
17.13.7 Companies
18 ECONOMIC ASPECTS AND BUSINESS MODELS
18.1 Cost Competitiveness of Sustainable Chemical Technologies
18.2 Investment Trends in Green Chemistry
18.3 New Business Models in the Circular Economy
18.4 Market Dynamics and Consumer Preferences
18.5 Intellectual Property Considerations
18.6 Case Studies
18.6.1 Bio-based Production of Bulk Chemicals
18.6.2 CO2 to Polymers: Innovating in Materials
18.6.3 Waste Plastic to Fuels and Chemicals
18.6.4 Green Pharmaceutical Manufacturing
18.6.5 Sustainable Agriculture Chemicals
18.6.6 Circular Economy in Action: Closing the Loop in Packaging
18.6.7 Revolutionizing Textiles: From Petrochemicals to Bio-based Fibers
19 FUTURE OUTLOOK AND EMERGING TRENDS
19.1 Convergence of Bio, Nano, and Information Technologies
19.2 Quantum Computing in Chemical Research and Development
19.3 Space-based Manufacturing of Chemicals
19.4 Artificial Photosynthesis and Solar Fuels
19.5 Personalized and On-demand Chemical Manufacturing
19.6 The Role of Chemistry in Achieving Net-Zero Emissions
19.7 Circular Economy Solutions
19.8 Artificial Intelligence and Digitalization Impact
19.9 Quantum Chemistry Prospects
20 APPENDICES
20.1 Glossary of Terms
20.2 List of Abbreviations
20.3 Research Methodology
21 REFERENCES
List of Tables
Table 1. Global drivers and trends in sustainable chemicals.
Table 2. Role of Digitalization and Industry 4.0 in Sustainable Chemicals.
Table 3. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in agriculture.
Table 4. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Green Cosmetics and Personal Care.
Table 5. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Sustainable Packaging.
Table 6. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Eco-friendly Paints and Coatings.
Table 7. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Alternative Fuels and Lubricants.
Table 8. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare.
Table 9. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Water Treatment and Purification.
Table 10. Sustainable Chemicals and Materials in Carbon Capture and Utilization.
Table 11. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Advanced Materials for 3D Printing.
Table 12. Sustainable Mining and Metallurgy.
Table 13. Comparison of traditional and sustainable chemical feedstocks.
Table 14. Types of Biomass and Their Chemical Compositions.
Table 15. Pretreatment and Conversion Technologies.
Table 16. Challenges in Scaling Up Biomass Utilization.
Table 17. CO2 Capture Technologies.
Table 18. Chemical Conversion Pathways for CO2
Table 19. Economic and Technical Barriers to CO2 Utilization.
Table 20. Industrial Waste Streams and By-products
Table 21. Electrolysis Technologies.
Table 22. Types of biocatalysts
Table 23. Heterogeneous Catalysis Advancements.
Table 24. Photocatalysis vs Electrocatalysis.
Table 25. Applications of chemically recycled materials.
Table 26. Summary of non-catalytic pyrolysis technologies.
Table 27. Summary of catalytic pyrolysis technologies.
Table 28. Summary of pyrolysis technique under different operating conditions.
Table 29. Biomass materials and their bio-oil yield
Table 30. Biofuel production cost from the biomass pyrolysis process.
Table 31. Pyrolysis companies and plant capacities, current and planned.
Table 32. Summary of gasification technologies.
Table 33. Advanced recycling (Gasification) companies.
Table 34. Summary of dissolution technologies.
Table 35. Advanced recycling (Dissolution) companies
Table 4. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Green Cosmetics and Personal Care.
Table 5. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Sustainable Packaging.
Table 6. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Eco-friendly Paints and Coatings.
Table 7. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Alternative Fuels and Lubricants.
Table 8. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare.
Table 9. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Water Treatment and Purification.
Table 10. Sustainable Chemicals and Materials in Carbon Capture and Utilization.
Table 11. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Advanced Materials for 3D Printing.
Table 12. Sustainable Mining and Metallurgy.
Table 13. Comparison of traditional and sustainable chemical feedstocks.
Table 14. Types of Biomass and Their Chemical Compositions.
Table 15. Pretreatment and Conversion Technologies.
Table 16. Challenges in Scaling Up Biomass Utilization.
Table 17. CO2 Capture Technologies.
Table 18. Chemical Conversion Pathways for CO2
Table 19. Economic and Technical Barriers to CO2 Utilization.
Table 20. Industrial Waste Streams and By-products
Table 21. Electrolysis Technologies.
Table 22. Types of biocatalysts
Table 23. Heterogeneous Catalysis Advancements.
Table 24. Photocatalysis vs Electrocatalysis.
Table 25. Applications of chemically recycled materials.
Table 26. Summary of non-catalytic pyrolysis technologies.
Table 27. Summary of catalytic pyrolysis technologies.
Table 28. Summary of pyrolysis technique under different operating conditions.
Table 29. Biomass materials and their bio-oil yield
Table 30. Biofuel production cost from the biomass pyrolysis process.
Table 31. Pyrolysis companies and plant capacities, current and planned.
Table 32. Summary of gasification technologies.
Table 33. Advanced recycling (Gasification) companies.
Table 34. Summary of dissolution technologies.
Table 35. Advanced recycling (Dissolution) companies
Table 66. Feedstock-based Classification
Table 67. Platform-based Classification.
Table 68. Product-based Classification.
Table 69. Process Integration Strategies in Biorefineries.
Table 70. Production capacities of biorefinery lignin producers.
Table 71. Algal Biorefinery Products.
Table 72. Types of Cell Culture Systems.
Table 73. Factors Affecting Cell Culture Performance.
Table 74. Types of Fermentation Processes.
Table 75. Factors Affecting Fermentation Performance.
Table 76. Advances in Fermentation Technology
Table 77. Types of Purification Methods in Downstream Processing
Table 78. Factors Affecting Purification Performance.
Table 79. Advances in Purification Technology.
Table 80. Common formulation methods used in biomanufacturing.
Table 81. Factors Affecting Formulation Performance.
Table 82. Advances in Formulation Technology.
Table 83. Factors Affecting Scale-up Performance in Biomanufacturing.
Table 84. Scale-up Strategies in Biomanufacturing.
Table 85. Factors Affecting Optimization Performance in Biomanufacturing.
Table 86. Optimization Strategies in Biomanufacturing.
Table 87. Types of Quality Control Tests in Biomanufacturing.
Table 88.Factors Affecting Quality Control Performance in Biomanufacturing
Table 89. Factors Affecting Characterization Performance in Biomanufacturing
Table 90. Key fermentation parameters in batch vs continuous biomanufacturing processes.
Table 91. Major microbial cell factories used in industrial biomanufacturing.
Table 92. Comparison of Modes of Operation.
Table 93. Host organisms commonly used in biomanufacturing.
Table 94. CO2 non-conversion and conversion technology, advantages and disadvantages.
Table 95. Carbon utilization revenue forecast by product (US$).
Table 96. Carbon utilization business models.
Table 97. CO2 utilization and removal pathways
Table 98. Market challenges for CO2 utilization.
Table 99. Example CO2 utilization pathways.
Table 100. CO2 derived products via Thermochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.
Table 101. CO2 derived products via electrochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.
Table 102. CO2 derived products via biological conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.
Table 103. Companies developing and producing CO2-based polymers.
Table 104. Companies developing mineral carbonation technologies.
Table 105. Comparison of emerging CO₂ utilization applications.
Table 106. Main routes to CO₂-fuels.
Table 107. Market overview for CO2 derived fuels.
Table 108. Main routes to CO₂ -fuels
Table 109. Power-to-Methane projects.
Table 110. Microalgae products and prices.
Table 111. Main Solar-Driven CO2 Conversion Approaches.
Table 112. Companies in CO2-derived fuel products.
Table 113. Commodity chemicals and fuels manufactured from CO2.
Table 114. Companies in CO2-derived chemicals products.
Table 115. Carbon capture technologies and projects in the cement sector
Table 116. Prefabricated versus ready-mixed concrete markets .
Table 117. CO₂ utilization business models in building materials.
Table 118. Companies in CO2 derived building materials.
Table 119. Market challenges for CO2 utilization in construction materials.
Table 120. Companies in CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting.
Table 121. Applications of CCS in oil and gas production.
Table 122. CO2 EOR/Storage Challenges.
Table 123. Comparison of types of biocatalysts.
Table 124. Types of Microorganism Biocatalysts.
Table 125. Examples of fungal hosts.
Table 126. Commonly used yeast hosts.
Table 127. Common Algal Species Used in Biocatalysis and Their Applications.
Table 128. Common Cyanobacterial Species Used in Biocatalysis and Their Applications.
Table 129. Comparison of Algae and Cyanobacteria in Biocatalysis
Table 130. Types of Engineered Biocatalysts.
Table 131. Types of Detergent Enzymes.
Table 132.Types of Food Processing Enzymes
Table 133. Types of Textile Processing Enzymes.
Table 134. Types of Paper and Pulp Processing Enzymes.
Table 135. Types of Leather Processing Enzymes.
Table 136. Types of Biofuel Production Enzymes.
Table 137. Types of Animal Feed Enzymes.
Table 138. Types of Pharmaceutical and Diagnostic Enzymes.
Table 139. Types of Waste Management and Bioremediation Enzymes.
Table 140. Types of Agriculture and Crop Improvement Enzymes.
Table 141. Comparison of enzyme types.
Table 142. Other Types of Biocatalysts.
Table 143. Production methods for biocatalysts.
Table 144. Fermentation processes.
Table 145. Waste-based feedstocks and biochemicals produced
Table 146. Microbial and mineral-based feedstocks and biochemicals produced.
Table 147. Comparison of Cell-Free Protein Synthesis Systems.
Table 148. Key biomanufacturing processes utilized in synthetic biology.
Table 149. Molecules produced through industrial biomanufacturing.
Table 150. Continuous vs batch biomanufacturing
Table 151. Key fermentation parameters in batch vs continuous biomanufacturing processes.
Table 152. Synthetic biology fermentation processes.
Table 153. Cell-free versus cell-based systems
Table 154. Key applications of genome engineering.
Table 155. Comparison of Immobilization and Encapsulation Techniques.
Table 156. Types of Nanoparticle Biocatalysts.
Table 157. Types of Biocatalytic Cascades and Multi-Enzyme Systems.
Table 158. Key aspects of microfluidics in biocatalysts.
Table 159. Companies developing biocatalysts
Table 160. Key tools and techniques used in metabolic engineering for pathway optimization.
Table 161. Key applications of metabolic engineering.
Table 162. Main DNA synthesis technologies
Table 163. Main gene assembly methods.
Table 164. Key applications of genome engineering.
Table 165. Engineered proteins in industrial applications.
Table 166.Key computational tools and their applications in synthetic biology.
Table 167. Feedstocks for synthetic biology.
Table 168. Products from C1 feedstocks in white biotechnology.
Table 169. C2 Feedstock Products.
Table 170. CO2 derived products via biological conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.
Table 171. Common starch sources that can be used as feedstocks for producing biochemicals.
Table 172. Biomass processes summary, process description and TRL.
Table 173. Pathways for hydrogen production from biomass.
Table 174. Overview of alginate-description, properties, application and market size.
Table 175. Synthetic Biology Market Players.
Table 176. Types of bio-based solvents.
Table 177. Solvent Selection Tools and Frameworks.
Table 178. Companies developing bio-based solvents.
Table 179. MSW-to-chemicals processes.
Table 180. Agricultural and food waste valorization approaches.
Table 181. Value Proposition for Critical Material Extraction Technologies.
Table 182. Critical Material Extraction Methods Evaluated by Key Performance Metrics.
Table 183. Critical Rare-Earth Element Recovery Technologies from Secondary Sources.
Table 184. Li-ion Battery Technology Metal Recovery Methods-Metal, Recovery Method, Recovery Efficiency,
Challenges, Environmental Impact, Economic Viability.
Table 185. Critical Semiconductor Materials Recovery-Material, Primary Source, Recovery Method, Recovery
Efficiency, Challenges, Potential Applications.
Table 186. Critical Semiconductor Material Recovery from Secondary Sources.
Table 187. Critical Platinum Group Metal Recovery.
Table 188. Bio-based flocculants and coagulants.
Table 189. Bio-based polymer membranes.
Table 190. Ceramic membranes from recycled materials.
Table 191. Types of Advanced adsorbents.
Table 192. Nutrient recovery technologies.
Table 193. Resource recovery processes:.
Table 194. Types of bioelectrochemical systems.
Table 195. Types of green solvents used in extraction processes.
Table 196. Types of biodegradable chelating agents.
Table 197. Types of biocatalysts used in wastewater treatment.
Table 198. Types of advanced adsorption materials.
Table 199. Types of sustainable pH adjustment chemicals.
Table 200. Green Lixiviants for Metal Extraction.
Table 201. Sustainable Flotation Chemicals.
Table 202. Electrochemical Recovery Methods.
Table 203. Geopolymers and Mine Tailings Utilization.
Table 204. Sustainable remediation technologies .
Table 205. Waste-to-energy technologies .
Table 206. Advanced separation techniques .
Table 207. Companies in waste valorization and resource recovery.
Table 208. Energy Efficiency Measures in Chemical Plants.
Table 209. Renewable Energy Sources in Chemical Production.
Table 210. Energy Storage Technologies for Process Industries.
Table 211. Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Systems.
Table 212. Green Chemistry Metrics and Sustainability Indicators.
Table 213. Key principles of Safety by Design.
Table 214. Key steps in risk assessment for new chemical technologies.
Table 215. Key components of EIA for chemical processes.
Table 216. Environmental Policies Driving Sustainable Chemistry.
Table 217. Incentives and Support Mechanisms for Green Chemistry.
Table 218. Challenges in Regulating Emerging Technologies.
Table 219. International Cooperation and Harmonization Efforts.
Table 220. LDPE film versus PLA, 2019–24 (USD/tonne).
Table 221. PLA properties
Table 222. Applications, advantages and disadvantages of PHAs in packaging.
Table 223. Market overview for cellulose microfibers (microfibrillated cellulose) in paperboard and packaging-market
age, key benefits, applications and producers
Table 224. Applications of nanocrystalline cellulose (CNC).
Table 225. Market overview for cellulose nanofibers in packaging.
Table 226. Applications of Bacterial Nanocellulose in Packaging.
Table 227. Types of protein based-bioplastics, applications and companies.
Table 228. Overview of alginate-description, properties, application and market size.
Table 229. Companies developing algal-based bioplastics.
Table 230. Overview of mycelium fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.
Table 231. Overview of chitosan-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.
Table 232. Commercial Examples of Chitosan-based Films and Coatings and Companies.
Table 233. Bio-based naphtha markets and applications.
Table 234. Bio-naphtha market value chain.
Table 235. Commercial Examples of Bio-Naphtha Packaging and Companies.
Table 236. Bioplastics and biodegradable polymers market players
Table 237. Biopesticides and Biocontrol Agents
Table 238. Types of Controlled Release Fertilizers.
Table 239. Common Natural Product Biostimulants and Their Modes of Action.
Table 240. Commercially available microbial bioinsecticides.
Table 241. Common Biochemicals Used in Agriculture.
Table 242. Types of Biopesticides.
Table 243. Sustainable Agriculture Chemicals Market Players.
Table 244. Established bio-based construction materials.
Table 245. Types of self-healing concrete.
Table 246. Types of biobased aerogels.
Table 247. Sustainable Construction Materials Market Players.
Table 248. Pros and cons of different type of food packaging materials.
Table 249. Active Biodegradable Films films and their food applications.
Table 250. Intelligent Biodegradable Films.
Table 251. Edible films and coatings market summary.
Table 252. Types of polyols.
Table 253. Polyol producers.
Table 254. Bio-based polyurethane coating products.
Table 255. Bio-based acrylate resin products.
Table 256. Polylactic acid (PLA) market analysis.
Table 257. Commercially available PHAs.
Table 258. Market overview for cellulose nanofibers in paints and coatings.
Table 259. Companies developing cellulose nanofibers products in paints and coatings.
Table 260. Types of protein based-biomaterials, applications and companies.
Table 261. CO2 utilization and removal pathways
Table 262. CO2 utilization products developed by chemical and plastic producers.
Table 263. Sustainable packaging market players.
Table 264. Natural and Bio-based Ingredients.
Table 265. Biodegradable polymers.
Table 266. CNC properties.
Table 267.Types of PHAs and properties.
Table 268. Technical lignin types and applications.
Table 269. Properties of lignins and their applications.
Table 270. Production capacities of technical lignin producers.
Table 271. Production capacities of biorefinery lignin producers.
Table 272. Examples of Waterless Formulations.
Table 273. Green Cosmetics and Personal Care Market Players.
Table 274. Example envinronmentally friendly coatings, advantages and disadvantages.
Table 275. Plant Waxes.
Table 276. Types of alkyd resins and properties.
Table 277. Market summary for bio-based alkyd coatings-raw materials, advantages, disadvantages, applications and
producers.
Table 278. Bio-based alkyd coating products.
Table 279. Types of polyols.
Table 280. Polyol producers.
Table 281. Bio-based polyurethane coating products.
Table 282. Market summary for bio-based epoxy resins.
Table 283. Bio-based polyurethane coating products.
Table 284. Bio-based acrylate resin products.
Table 285. Polylactic acid (PLA) market analysis.
Table 286. Market assessment for cellulose nanofibers in paints and coatings-application, key benefits and motivation
for use, megatrends, market drivers, technology drawbacks, competing materials, material loading, main global
paints and coatings OEMs.
Table 287. Companies developing CNF products in paints and coatings, applications targeted and stage of
commercialization.
Table 288. Types of protein based-biomaterials, applications and companies.
Table 289. Overview of algal coatings-description, properties, application and market size.
Table 290. Companies developing algal-based plastics.
Table 291. Eco-friendly Paints and Coatings Market Players.
Table 292. Examples of Biodegradable Electronic Materials and Applications
Table 293. Benefits of Green Electronics Manufacturing
Table 294. Challenges in adopting Green Electronics manufacturing.
Table 295. Key areas where the PCB industry can improve sustainability.
Table 296. Improving sustainability of PCB design
Table 297. PCB design options for sustainability
Table 298. Sustainability benefits and challenges associated with 3D printing.
Table 299. Conductive ink producers.
Table 300. Green and lead-free solder companies.
Table 301. Biodegradable substrates for PCBs.
Table 302. Overview of mycelium fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.
Table 303. Application of lignin in composites.
Table 304. Properties of lignins and their applications.
Table 305. Properties of flexible electronics‐cellulose nanofiber film (nanopaper).
Table 306. Companies developing cellulose nanofibers for electronics.
Table 307. Commercially available PHAs.
Table 308. Main limitations of the FR4 material system used for manufacturing printed circuit boards (PCBs).
Table 309. Halogen-free FR4 companies.
Table 310. Properties of biobased PCBs.
Table 311. Applications of flexible (bio) polyimide PCBs.
Table 312. Main patterning and metallization steps in PCB fabrication and sustainable options.
Table 313. Sustainability issues with conventional metallization processes.
Table 314. Benefits of print-and-plate.
Table 315. Sustainable alternative options to standard plating resists used in printed circuit board (PCB) fabrication.
Table 316. Applications for laser induced forward transfer
Table 317. Copper versus silver inks in laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT) for electronics fabrication.
Table 318. Approaches for in-situ oxidation prevention.
Table 319. Market readiness and maturity of different lead-free solders and electrically conductive adhesives (ECAs)
for electronics manufacturing.
Table 320. Advantages of green electroless plating.
Table 321. Comparison of component attachment materials.
Table 322. Comparison between sustainable and conventional component attachment materials for printed circuit
boards
Table 323. Comparison between the SMAs and SMPs.
Table 324. Comparison of conductive biopolymers versus conventional materials for printed circuit board fabrication.
Table 325. Comparison of curing and reflow processes used for attaching components in electronics assembly.
Table 326. Low temperature solder alloys.
Table 327. Thermally sensitive substrate materials.
Table 328. Limitations of existing IC production.
Table 329. Strategies for improving sustainability in integrated circuit (IC) manufacturing.
Table 330. Comparison of oxidation methods and level of sustainability.
Table 331. Stage of commercialization for oxides.
Table 332. Alternative doping techniques.
Table 333. Metal content mg / Kg in Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) from waste desktop computers.
Table 334. Chemical recycling methods for handling electronic waste.
Table 335. Electrochemical processes for recycling metals from electronic waste
Table 336. Thermal recycling processes for electronic waste.
Table 337. Green Electronics Market Players.
Table 338. Properties and applications of the main natural fibres
Table 339. Types of sustainable alternative leathers
Table 340. Properties of bio-based leathers.
Table 341. Comparison with conventional leathers.
Table 342. Price of commercially available sustainable alternative leather products
Table 343. Comparative analysis of sustainable alternative leathers.
Table 344. Key processing steps involved in transforming plant fibers into leather materials.
Table 345. Current and emerging plant-based leather products.
Table 346. Companies developing plant-based leather products.
Table 347. Overview of mycelium-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.
Table 348. Companies developing mycelium-based leather products.
Table 349. Types of microbial-derived leather alternative.
Table 350. Companies developing microbial leather products.
Table 351. Companies developing plant-based leather products.
Table 352. Types of protein-based leather alternatives.
Table 353. Companies developing protein based leather.
Table 354. Companies developing sustainable coatings and dyes for leather -
Table 355. Sustainable Textiles and Fibers Market Players.
Table 356. Biodiesel by generation.
Table 357. Biodiesel production techniques.
Table 358. Summary of pyrolysis technique under different operating conditions.
Table 359. Biomass materials and their bio-oil yield
Table 360. Biofuel production cost from the biomass pyrolysis process.
Table 361. Properties of vegetable oils in comparison to diesel.
Table 362. Main producers of HVO and capacities.
Table 363. Example commercial Development of BtL processes.
Table 364. Pilot or demo projects for biomass to liquid (BtL) processes.
Table 365. Global biodiesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year)
Table 366. Global renewable diesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year).
Table 367. Renewable diesel price ranges.
Table 368. Advantages and disadvantages of Bio-aviation fuel.
Table 369. Production pathways for Bio-aviation fuel.
Table 370. Current and announced Bio-aviation fuel facilities and capacities.
Table 371. Global bio-jet fuel consumption 2019-2035 (Million litres/year).
Table 372. Bio-based naphtha markets and applications.
Table 373. Bio-naphtha market value chain.
Table 374. Bio-naphtha pricing against petroleum-derived naphtha and related fuel products.
Table 375. Bio-based Naphtha production capacities, by producer.
Table 376. Comparison of biogas, biomethane and natural gas.
Table 377. Processes in bioethanol production.
Table 378. Microorganisms used in CBP for ethanol production from biomass lignocellulosic.
Table 379. Ethanol consumption 2010-2035 (million litres).
Table 380. Biogas feedstocks.
Table 381. Existing and planned bio-LNG production plants.
Table 382. Methods for capturing carbon dioxide from biogas.
Table 383. Comparison of different Bio-H2 production pathways.
Table 384. Markets and applications for biohydrogen.
Table 385. Summary of gasification technologies.
Table 386. Overview of hydrothermal cracking for advanced chemical recycling.
Table 387. Applications of e-fuels, by type.
Table 388. Overview of e-fuels.
Table 389. Benefits of e-fuels.
Table 390. eFuel production facilities, current and planned.
Table 391. E-fuels companies
Table 392. Algae-derived biofuel producers.
Table 393. Green ammonia projects (current and planned).
Table 394. Blue ammonia projects.
Table 395. Ammonia fuel cell technologies.
Table 396. Market overview of green ammonia in marine fuel.
Table 397. Summary of marine alternative fuels.
Table 398. Estimated costs for different types of ammonia.
Table 399. Main players in green ammonia.
Table 400. Typical composition and physicochemical properties reported for bio-oils and heavy petroleum-derived oils.
Table 401. Properties and characteristics of pyrolysis liquids derived from biomass versus a fuel oil.
Table 402. Main techniques used to upgrade bio-oil into higher-quality fuels.
Table 403. Markets and applications for bio-oil.
Table 404. Bio-oil producers.
Table 405. Key resource recovery technologies
Table 406. Markets and end uses for refuse-derived fuels (RDF).
Table 407. Bio-based lubricants.
Table 408. Alternative Fuels and Lubricants Market Players.
Table 409. Types of Green Solvents in Green Pharmaceutical Synthesis.
Table 410. Catalysis Methods in Green Pharmaceutical Synthesis.
Table 411. Alternative Energy Sources in Pharmaceutical Synthesis.
Table 412. Green Oxidation and Reduction Methods.
Table 413. Atom-Economical Reactions.
Table 414. Bio-based Starting Materials
Table 415. Process Intensification Methods.
Table 416. Green Analytical Techniques.
Table 417. Sustainable Purification Methods.
Table 418. Natural Polymers for Drug Delivery.
Table 419. Protein-based Materials for Drug Delivery.
Table 420. Polysaccharide-based Systems for Drug Delivery.
Table 421. Lipid-based Carriers for Drug Delivery
Table 422. Plant-derived Materials for Drug Delivery.
Table 423. Microbial-derived Polymers for Drug Delivery.
Table 424. Green Synthesis Methods for Drug Delivery Systems.
Table 425. Stimuli-responsive Biopolymers for Drug Delivery.
Table 426. Bioconjugation Techniques for Drug Delivery Systems.
Table 427. Sustainable Particle Formation Techniques for Drug Delivery.
Table 428. Types of Sustainable Medical Devices.
Table 429. Sustainable Healthcare and Biomedicine Market Players.
Table 430. Types of Bio-based 3D Printing Resins.
Table 431. Types of Recyclable and Reusable 3D Printing Materials.
Table 432. Types of Functional and Smart 3D Printing Materials.
Table 433. Advanced Materials for 3D Printing.
Table 434. Companies in Quantum Chemistry Applications.
Table 435. Cost Competitiveness of Sustainable Chemical Technologies
Table 436. Investment Trends in Green Chemistry
Table 437. Business Models in the Circular Economy.
Table 438. Market Dynamics and Consumer Preferences in Sustainable Chemistry.
Table 439. Intellectual Property Considerations.
Table 440. Companies developing quantum algorithms for chemical simulations.
Table 441. Applications in space-based chemical manufacturing.
Table 442. Artificial photosynthesis approaches
Table 443. Applications and benefits of personalized and on-demand chemical manufacturing.
Table 444. Technologies for achieving Net-Zero.
Table 445. Examples of circular economy solutions in the chemical industry.
Table 446. Applications of AI and digitalization in chemicals.
Table 447. Quantum chemistry applications.
Table 448. Glossary of terms.
Table 449. List of Abbreviations.
List of Figures
Figure 1. CO2 emissions reduction pathway for the chemical sector.
Figure 2. Water extraction methods for natural products.
Figure 3. Circular economy model for the chemical industry.
Figure 4. Schematic layout of a pyrolysis plant.
Figure 5. Waste plastic production pathways to (A) diesel and (B) gasoline
Figure 6. Schematic for Pyrolysis of Scrap Tires.
Figure 7. Used tires conversion process.
Figure 8. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm³/h of Syngas.
Figure 9. Overview of biogas utilization.
Figure 10. Biogas and biomethane pathways.
Figure 11. Products obtained through the different solvolysis pathways of PET, PU, and PA.
Figure 12. Siemens gPROMS Digital Twin schematic.
Figure 13. Applications for CO2.
Figure 14. Cost to capture one metric ton of carbon, by sector.
Figure 15. Life cycle of CO2-derived products and services.
Figure 16. Co2 utilization pathways and products.
Figure 17. Plasma technology configurations and their advantages and disadvantages for CO2 conversion.
Figure 18. Electrochemical CO₂ reduction products.
Figure 19. LanzaTech gas-fermentation process.
Figure 20. Schematic of biological CO2 conversion into e-fuels.
Figure 21. Econic catalyst systems.
Figure 22. Mineral carbonation processes.
Figure 23. Conversion route for CO2-derived fuels and chemical intermediates.
Figure 24. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived methane, methanol and diesel.
Figure 25. CO2 feedstock for the production of e-methanol.
Figure 26. Schematic illustration of (a) biophotosynthetic, (b) photothermal, (c) microbial-photoelectrochemical, (d)
photosynthetic and photocatalytic (PS/PC), (e) photoelectrochemical (PEC), and (f) photovoltaic plus
electrochemical (PV+EC) approaches for CO2 c
Figure 27. Audi synthetic fuels.
Figure 28. Conversion of CO2 into chemicals and fuels via different pathways.
Figure 29. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived polymeric materials
Figure 30. Conversion pathway for CO2-derived building materials.
Figure 31. Schematic of CCUS in cement sector.
Figure 32. Carbon8 Systems’ ACT process.
Figure 33. CO2 utilization in the Carbon Cure process
Figure 34. Algal cultivation in the desert.
Figure 35. Example pathways for products from cyanobacteria.
Figure 36. Typical Flow Diagram for CO2 EOR.
Figure 37. Large CO2-EOR projects in different project stages by industry.
Figure 38. Carbon mineralization pathways.
Figure 39. Cell-free and cell-based protein synthesis systems.
Figure 40. The design-make-test-learn loop of generative biology.
Figure 41. CRISPR/Cas9 & Targeted Genome Editing.
Figure 42. Genetic Circuit-Assisted Smart Microbial Engineering.
Figure 43. Microbial Chassis Development for Natural Product Biosynthesis.
Figure 44. LanzaTech gas-fermentation process.
Figure 45. Schematic of biological CO2 conversion into e-fuels.
Figure 46. Overview of biogas utilization.
Figure 47. Biogas and biomethane pathways.
Figure 48. Schematic overview of anaerobic digestion process for biomethane production.
Figure 49. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix.
Figure 50. TRL of critical material extraction technologies.
Figure 51. Organization and morphology of cellulose synthesizing terminal complexes (TCs) in different organisms.
Figure 52. TEM image of cellulose nanocrystals.
Figure 53. CNC slurry.
Figure 54. CNF gel.
Figure 55. Bacterial nanocellulose shapes
Figure 56. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix.
Figure 57. Luum Temple, constructed from Bamboo.
Figure 58. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam.
Figure 59. Commercial mycelium composite construction materials.
Figure 60. Self-healing concrete test study with cracked concrete (left) and self-healed concrete after 28 days (right).
Figure 61. Self-healing bacteria crack filler for concrete.
Figure 62. Self-healing bio concrete.
Figure 63. Microalgae based biocement masonry bloc.
Figure 64. Types of bio-based materials used for antimicrobial food packaging application.
Figure 65. Water soluble packaging by Notpla.
Figure 66. Examples of edible films in food packaging.
Figure 67. Hefcel-coated wood (left) and untreated wood (right) after 30 seconds flame test.
Figure 68. Applications for CO2.
Figure 69. Life cycle of CO2-derived products and services.
Figure 70. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived polymeric materials
Figure 71. Schematic of production of powder coatings.
Figure 72. Organization and morphology of cellulose synthesizing terminal complexes (TCs) in different organisms.
Figure 73. Types of bio-based materials used for antimicrobial food packaging application.
Figure 74. Vapor degreasing
Figure 75. Multi-layered PCB.
Figure 76. 3D printed PCB.
Figure 77. In-mold electronics prototype devices and products.
Figure 78. Silver nanocomposite ink after sintering and resin bonding of discrete electronic components.
Figure 79. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam.
Figure 80. Flexible electronic substrate made from CNF.
Figure 81. CNF composite.
Figure 82. Oji CNF transparent sheets.
Figure 83. Electronic components using cellulose nanofibers as insulating materials.
Figure 84. Dell's Concept Luna laptop.
Figure 85. Direct-write, precision dispensing, and 3D printing platform for 3D printed electronics.
Figure 86. 3D printed circuit boards from Nano Dimension.
Figure 87. Photonic sintering.
Figure 88. Laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT).
Figure 89. Material jetting 3d printing.
Figure 90. Material jetting 3d printing product.
Figure 91. The molecular mechanism of the shape memory effect under different stimuli.
Figure 92. Supercooled Soldering™ Technology.
Figure 93. Reflow soldering schematic.
Figure 94. Schematic diagram of induction heating reflow.
Figure 95. Fully-printed organic thin-film transistors and circuitry on one-micron-thick polymer films.
Figure 96. Types of PCBs after dismantling waste computers and monitors.
Figure 97. AlgiKicks sneaker, made with the Algiknit biopolymer gel.
Figure 98. Conceptual landscape of next-gen leather materials.
Figure 99. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam.
Figure 100. Hermès bag made of MycoWorks' mycelium leather.
Figure 101. Ganni blazer made from bacterial cellulose.
Figure 102. Bou Bag by GANNI and Modern Synthesis.
Figure 103. Regional production of biodiesel (billion litres).
Figure 104. Flow chart for biodiesel production.
Figure 105. Biodiesel (B20) average prices, current and historical, USD/litre.
Figure 106. Global biodiesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year).
Figure 107. SWOT analysis for renewable iesel.
Figure 108. Global renewable diesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year).
Figure 109. SWOT analysis for Bio-aviation fuel.
Figure 110. Global bio-jet fuel consumption to 2019-2035 (Million litres/year).
Figure 111. SWOT analysis for bio-naphtha.
Figure 112. Bio-based naphtha production capacities, 2018-2035 (tonnes).
Figure 113. SWOT analysis biomethanol.
Figure 114. Renewable Methanol Production Processes from Different Feedstocks.
Figure 115. Production of biomethane through anaerobic digestion and upgrading.
Figure 116. Production of biomethane through biomass gasification and methanation.
Figure 117. Production of biomethane through the Power to methane process.
Figure 118. SWOT analysis for ethanol.
Figure 119. Ethanol consumption 2010-2035 (million litres).
Figure 120. Properties of petrol and biobutanol.
Figure 121. Biobutanol production route.
Figure 122. Biogas and biomethane pathways.
Figure 123. Overview of biogas utilization.
Figure 124. Biogas and biomethane pathways.
Figure 125. Schematic overview of anaerobic digestion process for biomethane production.
Figure 126. Schematic overview of biomass gasification for biomethane production.
Figure 127. SWOT analysis for biogas.
Figure 128. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm³/h of Syngas, 2021.
Figure 129. SWOT analysis for biohydrogen.
Figure 130. Waste plastic production pathways to (A) diesel and (B) gasoline
Figure 131. Schematic for Pyrolysis of Scrap Tires.
Figure 132. Used tires conversion process.
Figure 133. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm³/h of Syngas, 2021.
Figure 134. Overview of biogas utilization.
Figure 135. Biogas and biomethane pathways.
Figure 136. Process steps in the production of electrofuels.
Figure 137. Mapping storage technologies according to performance characteristics
Figure 138. Production process for green hydrogen.
Figure 139. E-liquids production routes.
Figure 140. Fischer-Tropsch liquid e-fuel products
Figure 141. Resources required for liquid e-fuel production.
Figure 142. Pathways for algal biomass conversion to biofuels.
Figure 143. Algal biomass conversion process for biofuel production.
Figure 144. Classification and process technology according to carbon emission in ammonia production.
Figure 145. Green ammonia production and use.
Figure 146. Schematic of the Haber Bosch ammonia synthesis reaction.
Figure 147. Schematic of hydrogen production via steam methane reformation.
Figure 148. Estimated production cost of green ammonia.
Figure 149. Bio-oil upgrading/fractionation techniques.

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